The early nineteenth century was one of the most turbulent and transformative periods in Yoruba history. It was an era marked by internal dissent within the Oyo Empire, the rise of Islamic reform movements across West Africa, and the expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate. At the center of this historical turning point stood powerful figures whose decisions altered the political and cultural trajectory of Ilorin, Nupe, and much of the Yoruba country.
This is the story of Afonja, Solagberu, Alfa Alimi, Abd al-Rahman Nufawi, and the emergence of emirate dynasties that still shape northern Nigeria today.
The Fall of Afonja and the Transformation of Ilorin
In the early 1800s, Ilorin was a provincial town under the authority of the Oyo Empire, one of the most formidable pre-colonial states in West Africa. The Alaafin of Oyo exercised influence through appointed warlords known as Aare Ona Kakanfo. One of the most prominent of these was Afonja, the Aare Ona Kakanfo stationed in Ilorin.
Afonja was not merely a military commander; he was a powerful warlord with significant autonomy. Historical accounts indicate that tensions grew between Afonja and the Alaafin of Oyo, leading Afonja to rebel against central authority. In his quest to consolidate power, Afonja sought alliances beyond traditional Yoruba political structures.
Among his associates was Solagberu, a Muslim warlord with a private militia. Afonja granted him land at Oke Suna, near the borders of Ilorin, providing him with prime real estate and strategic positioning. This settlement would later become significant in the unfolding political drama.
At the same time, Islamic reformist movements were sweeping across West Africa under the leadership of Usman dan Fodio. His jihad, which began in 1804, led to the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate, a vast Islamic empire that stretched across much of northern Nigeria.
In Ilorin, a Fulani Islamic scholar named Alfa Alimi became a central figure. Initially invited to Ilorin as a religious teacher, Alimi gradually gained influence. Tensions between Afonja and Alimi escalated into a religious and political revolt.
When the jihadist forces moved against Afonja, he reportedly sent his trusted aide, Bugare, to appeal to Solagberu for military support. Despite their prior relationship and the land grant at Oke Suna, Solagberu refused to intervene. His decision effectively isolated Afonja at a critical moment.
The refusal of assistance weakened Afonja’s position, and he was ultimately defeated and killed. With his fall, Ilorin ceased to function as a Yoruba provincial town and was absorbed into the expanding Sokoto Caliphate. A new emirate structure was established under the leadership of Alimi’s lineage.
Today, the Emirate of Ilorin remains a prominent traditional institution in Nigeria. The current Emir, Ibrahim Sulu-Gambari, is a direct descendant of Alfa Alimi, reflecting the enduring legacy of those early nineteenth-century transformations.
Toyeje’s Counteroffensive and Solagberu’s Second Alliance
Following Afonja’s death, resistance did not end. Many of his warriors regrouped under Toyeje, the governor of Ogbomosho, determined to avenge their fallen leader and reclaim Ilorin from the newly established emirate.
At Ogele, Toyeje assembled a large army with the intention of invading Ilorin and dismantling the Alimi dynasty. The stakes were high: this was not merely a battle for territory but a struggle over political sovereignty and the cultural identity of Ilorin.
Facing this threat, the new Emirate leadership once again sought Solagberu’s military assistance. This time, Solagberu aligned his cavalry and soldiers with the emirate authorities. With his support, Toyeje’s army was repelled.
Historical traditions recount that Solagberu subsequently launched campaigns into the eastern territories of the declining Oyo Empire. These conquests strengthened Ilorin’s strategic dominance and reinforced its position within the Sokoto Caliphate’s administrative sphere, particularly under the Gwandu emirate structure.
Ilorin’s integration into the caliphate fundamentally shifted regional power dynamics. What had once been a Yoruba military outpost evolved into a key emirate within a broader Islamic empire.
The Downfall of Solagberu
Political alliances in times of upheaval are rarely permanent. Once Ilorin’s emirate structure had stabilized and secured backing from Sokoto, internal rivalries surfaced.
Under Emir Abdulsalam, tensions reportedly developed between the emirate leadership and Solagberu. Having played a pivotal military role, Solagberu had amassed influence that may have been perceived as a threat.
Eventually, the Emir ordered a siege on Oke Suna. Solagberu was captured, brought before the Emir, and executed. His fate underscores a recurring historical pattern: figures who shift alliances during transformative eras often find themselves vulnerable once new political orders consolidate power.
The Nupe Jihad and the Rise of Bida
A similar trajectory unfolded in the Nupe Kingdom. A native Islamic cleric named Abd al-Rahman Nufawi emerged as a reformist figure in the early 19th century. Inspired by the jihadist movement of Usman dan Fodio, Nufawi launched a jihad in 1813 against established Nupe rulers.
He received cavalry reinforcements from the Sokoto Caliphate, significantly strengthening his campaign. The eventual capture of Nupe territories brought the caliphate’s influence to the banks of the River Niger, a development of major strategic importance.
The campaigns of Abd al-Rahman were reportedly documented and celebrated in manuscripts by Muhammadu Bello, son of Usman dan Fodio and a key intellectual and political leader of the caliphate.
However, the consolidation of power did not secure Abd al-Rahman’s long-term authority. Within a few years, Fulani aristocrats distanced themselves from him. Military support was withdrawn, and new leadership structures were introduced to counterbalance his influence.
By 1820, Abd al-Rahman was assassinated. Leadership transitioned to Malam Dendo, who established the emirate capital at Bida.
Today, the Nupe Emirate remains centered in Bida, and the current Emir, Yahaya Abubakar, is a direct descendant of Malam Dendo.
Historical Lessons and Interpretations
The histories of Ilorin and Nupe illustrate broader themes in West African political evolution:
The decline of centralized empires such as Oyo.
The rise of reformist Islamic movements.
The transformation of provincial towns into emirates.
The fluid and often perilous nature of political alliances.
It is important, however, to approach these events with scholarly nuance. The 19th-century jihads were not merely foreign invasions but complex movements involving local actors, ideological commitments, economic interests, and power struggles.
Many Yoruba Muslims were integral participants in these transformations, and Ilorin’s identity today reflects both Yoruba heritage and Islamic emirate tradition. Similarly, Nupe history demonstrates the interplay between indigenous political structures and broader caliphate ambitions.
Historical narratives that frame these developments solely in terms of ethnic betrayal or religious solidarity oversimplify a far more intricate reality. Political survival, military strength, ideological conviction, and personal ambition all played roles.
Conclusion: Power, Faith, and Political Realignment in 19th-Century Nigeria
The early 1800s reshaped the political map of what is now Nigeria. The fall of Afonja, the rise of the Ilorin Emirate, the Nupe jihad, and the establishment of Bida as a new emirate capital were not isolated events. They were interconnected episodes within a larger regional transformation driven by the expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate.
Figures like Afonja, Solagberu, Alfa Alimi, Abd al-Rahman Nufawi, and Malam Dendo were actors in a dramatic historical shift that still echoes in contemporary traditional institutions.
Understanding this period requires careful study of documented manuscripts, oral traditions, and modern historical scholarship. It also demands recognition that alliances formed in moments of crisis can permanently reshape nations — but often at a cost to those who initiate them.
The legacies of Ilorin and Bida remain visible today, embodied in their reigning emirs and in the enduring cultural synthesis that defines northern and central Nigeria.
History, in this case, is not merely about conquest. It is about the fragile balance between faith, power, loyalty, and ambition — and the enduring consequences of decisions made in moments of upheaval.
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